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The American Journal of Clinical... Jun 2004This review's objective is to give a critical summary of studies that focused on physiologic measures relating to subjectively rated appetite, actual food intake, or... (Review)
Review
This review's objective is to give a critical summary of studies that focused on physiologic measures relating to subjectively rated appetite, actual food intake, or both. Biomarkers of satiation and satiety may be used as a tool for assessing the satiating efficiency of foods and for understanding the regulation of food intake and energy balance. We made a distinction between biomarkers of satiation or meal termination and those of meal initiation related to satiety and between markers in the brain [central nervous system (CNS)] and those related to signals from the periphery to the CNS. Various studies showed that physicochemical measures related to stomach distension and blood concentrations of cholecystokinin and glucagon-like peptide 1 are peripheral biomarkers associated with meal termination. CNS biomarkers related to meal termination identified by functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography are indicators of neural activity related to sensory-specific satiety. These measures cannot yet serve as a tool for assessing the satiating effect of foods, because they are not yet feasible. CNS biomarkers related to satiety are not yet specific enough to serve as biomarkers, although they can distinguish between extreme hunger and fullness. Three currently available biomarkers for satiety are decreases in blood glucose in the short term (<5 min), which have been shown to be involved in meal initiation; leptin changes during longer-term (>2-4 d) negative energy balance; and ghrelin concentrations, which have been implicated in both short-term and long-term energy balance. The next challenge in this research area is to identify food ingredients that have an effect on biomarkers of satiation, satiety, or both. These ingredients may help consumers to maintain their energy intake at a level consistent with a healthy body weight.
Topics: Animals; Appetite; Biomarkers; Brain; Diet; Energy Metabolism; Humans; Satiation; Stomach; Thermogenesis
PubMed: 15159223
DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/79.6.946 -
Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) Nov 2014Among the key characteristics of the Western obesogenic food environment is a highly palatable and varied food supply. Laboratory investigations of eating behavior in... (Review)
Review
Among the key characteristics of the Western obesogenic food environment is a highly palatable and varied food supply. Laboratory investigations of eating behavior in both humans and animals established key roles for palatability and variety in stimulating appetite, delaying satiety, and promoting excessive energy intake. There is a robust effect of food palatability and variety on short-term food intake, and increased variety and palatability also cause weight gain in animal models. However, laboratory paradigms do not replicate the complexities of eating in a natural setting, and there is a shortage of evidence to estimate the magnitude of effects on weight in humans. There are substantial individual differences in susceptibility to the palatability effect and this may be a key determinant in individual vulnerability to weight gain. The understanding of pathways through which palatability and variety can affect eating is advancing, and epidemiologic and intervention studies are needed to translate laboratory findings into applications in public health or clinical domains, and to establish whether there is a role for greater regulation of the food environment in tackling increases in obesity.
Topics: Appetite; Energy Intake; Feeding Behavior; Food Preferences; Food Supply; Humans; Obesity; Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; Satiation; Taste
PubMed: 25398751
DOI: 10.3945/an.114.007120 -
Current Opinion in Endocrinology,... Feb 2019This review examines the hormonal regulation of gastric emptying, a topic of increasing relevance, given the fact that medications that are analogs of some of these... (Review)
Review
PURPOSE OF REVIEW
This review examines the hormonal regulation of gastric emptying, a topic of increasing relevance, given the fact that medications that are analogs of some of these hormones or act as agonists at the hormonal receptors, are used in clinical practice for optimizing metabolic control in the treatment of type 2 diabetes and in obesity.
RECENT FINDINGS
The major effects on gastric emptying result from actions of incretins, particularly gastric inhibitory polypeptide, glucagon-like peptide-1, and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine, the duodenal and pancreatic hormones, motilin, glucagon, and amylin, and the gastric orexigenic hormones, ghrelin and motilin. All of these hormones delay gastric emptying, except for ghrelin and motilin which accelerate gastric emptying. These effects on gastric emptying parallel the effects of the hormones on satiation (by those retarding emptying) and increase appetite by those that accelerate emptying. Indeed, in addition to the effects of these hormones on hypothalamic appetite centers and glycemic control, there is evidence that some of their biological effects are mediated through actions on the stomach, particularly with the glucagon-like peptide-1 analogs or agonists used in treating obesity.
SUMMARY
Effects of gastrointestinal hormones on gastric emptying are increasingly recognized as important mediators of satiation and postprandial glycemic control.
Topics: Appetite; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Gastric Emptying; Gastrointestinal Hormones; Humans; Obesity; Satiation
PubMed: 30418188
DOI: 10.1097/MED.0000000000000448 -
Physiology & Behavior Sep 2014Central nervous system control of food intake involves detecting, integrating and responding to diverse internal and external signals. For maintenance of energy... (Review)
Review
Central nervous system control of food intake involves detecting, integrating and responding to diverse internal and external signals. For maintenance of energy homeostasis, the brain uses long-term signals of metabolic status and short-term signals related to the nutrient content of individual meals. Feeding is also clearly influenced by hedonic, reward-related factors: palatability, motivation, and learned associations and cues that predict the availability of food. Different neural circuits have been proposed to mediate these homeostatic and hedonic aspects of eating. This review describes research on neural pathways that appear to be involved in both, integrating gastrointestinal satiation signaling with food reward. First, the glucagon-like peptide 1 projections from the nucleus of the solitary tract to the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area are discussed as a mechanism through which meal-related gut signals may influence palatability, motivation for food, and meal size. Second, the orexin projection from lateral hypothalamus to the nucleus of the solitary tract and area postrema is discussed as a mechanism through which cues that predict rewarding food may act to increase motivation for food and also to suppress satiation. Additional potential integrative sites and pathways are also briefly discussed. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the brain circuitry involved in energy homeostasis and the circuitry mediating food reward are, in fact, overlapping and far less distinct than previously considered.
Topics: Animals; Food Preferences; Glucagon-Like Peptide 1; Humans; Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins; Neuropeptides; Orexins; Reward; Satiation; Signal Transduction
PubMed: 24650552
DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.03.013 -
Appetite Dec 2013Multiple hormonal and neural signals are generated by ingested nutrients that limit meal size and suppress postmeal eating. However, the availability of sugar-rich and... (Review)
Review
Multiple hormonal and neural signals are generated by ingested nutrients that limit meal size and suppress postmeal eating. However, the availability of sugar-rich and fat-rich foods can override these satiation/satiety signals and lead to overeating and obesity. The palatable flavor of these foods is one factor that promotes overeating, but sugar and fat also have postoral actions that can stimulate eating and increase food preferences. This is revealed in conditioning studies in which rodents consume flavored solutions paired with intragastric sugar or fat infusions. The significant flavor preferences and increased intake produced by the nutrient infusions appear to involve stimulatory gut-brain signals, referred to here as appetition signals, that are distinct from the satiation signals that suppress feeding. Newly developed rapid conditioning protocols may facilitate the study of postoral appetition processes.
Topics: Appetite; Brain; Carbohydrates; Choice Behavior; Dietary Fats; Food Preferences; Gastrointestinal Tract; Humans; Satiation; Taste
PubMed: 22664300
DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2012.05.024 -
International Journal of Obesity (2005) Dec 2022Satiation is a key component of food intake regulation as it brings an eating episode to an end. The effect of sex on satiation measurement has not been characterized.
BACKGROUND
Satiation is a key component of food intake regulation as it brings an eating episode to an end. The effect of sex on satiation measurement has not been characterized.
OBJECTIVE
To assess the effects of biological variables on satiation.
DESIGN
Retrospective cohort study. We included 959 participants (mean age 39 [SD 12] years; 70.7% female, and BMI 33 kg/m [8]) who had measurements of satiation with a nutrient-drink test to assess volume to fullness (VTF) and maximum tolerated volume (MTV), and/or an ad libitum meal test to assess calories consumed to fullness (CTF). We performed univariate and multiple regression analyses to estimate the contribution of sex to VTF, MTV, and CTF, compared to other biological variables, such as age, weight, height, BMI, waist-to-hip circumference (W/H), and lean mass percentage (LM%), that are known to affect these parameters.
RESULTS
Females had higher BMI, W/H, and LM%. VTF, MTV, and CTF were lower in females: 704 [323] vs. 783 [328] mL, p = 0.001; 1226 [384] vs. 1419 [410] mL, p < 0.001; and 871 [291] vs. 1086 [326] kcal, p < 0.001; respectively. Sex was a strong and independent predictor of VTF, MTF and CTF: parameter estimate [PE] = -80.8, p = 0.006; PE = -124.2, p = 0.0007; and PE = -110, p = 0.001; respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
Sex has a strong effect on satiation measured by VTF, MTV, and CTF, even after adjusting for other biological factors known to affect these parameters. Females seem to integrate intra-meal inhibition signals to consume fewer calories unrelated to body size or composition.
CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION
None.
Topics: Humans; Female; Adult; Male; Retrospective Studies; Obesity; Satiation; Energy Intake; Meals; Eating
PubMed: 36229642
DOI: 10.1038/s41366-022-01228-7 -
Forum of Nutrition 2010It is now axiomatic that neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus have a primary role in responding to changes in circulating levels of leptin and transmitting... (Review)
Review
It is now axiomatic that neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus have a primary role in responding to changes in circulating levels of leptin and transmitting signals to downstream circuits that influence eating and energy expenditure. Signals generated from the gastrointestinal tract during meals reach the brainstem, via the vagus nerve and other routes, and impinge on neural circuits that influence the timing and size of meals and amount of food consumed. One of the mechanisms by which leptin exerts its anorexic effects is by increasing the effectiveness of intestinal signals that cause satiation during a meal. It is clear that the effects of gut satiation signals such as CCK can be amplified by leptin acting in the CNS, and in the arcuate nucleus in particular. The present article describes the state of our knowledge about specific neural circuits between the hypothalamus and brainstem that play a role in the interaction of leptin and meal-control signals to control food intake.
Topics: Animals; Appetite Regulation; Brain Stem; Eating; Humans; Neural Pathways; Prosencephalon; Satiation; Signal Transduction
PubMed: 19955781
DOI: 10.1159/000264401 -
Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics Apr 2011From a classical point of view, gastric motility acts to clear the stomach between meals, whereas postprandial motility acts to provide a reservoir for food, mixing and... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
From a classical point of view, gastric motility acts to clear the stomach between meals, whereas postprandial motility acts to provide a reservoir for food, mixing and grinding the food and to assure a controlled flow of food to the intestines.
AIM
To summarise findings that support the role of gastric motility as a central mediator of hunger, satiation and satiety.
METHODS
A literature review using the search terms 'satiety', 'satiation' and 'food intake' was combined with specific terms corresponding to the sequence of events during and after food intake.
RESULTS
During food intake, when gastric emptying of especially solids is limited, gastric distension and gastric accommodation play an important function in the regulation of satiation. After food intake, when the stomach gradually empties, the role of gastric distension in the determination of appetite decreases and the focus will shift to gastric emptying and intestinal exposure of the nutrients. Finally, we have discussed the role of the empty stomach and the migrating motor complex in the regulation of hunger signals.
CONCLUSIONS
Our findings indicate that gastric motility is a key mediator of hunger, satiation and satiety. More specifically, gastric accommodation and gastric emptying play important roles in the regulation of gastric (dis)tension and intestinal exposure of nutrients and hence control satiation and satiety. Correlations between gastric accommodation, gastric emptying and body weight indicate that gastric motility can also play a role in the long-term regulation of body weight.
Topics: Digestion; Eating; Gastric Emptying; Humans; Hunger; Satiation; Stomach
PubMed: 21342212
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2011.04609.x -
Revista Medica de Chile Sep 2017The study of the factors that regulate high energy food intake is especially relevant nowadays due to the high prevalence of overweight and obesity. Food intake... (Review)
Review
The study of the factors that regulate high energy food intake is especially relevant nowadays due to the high prevalence of overweight and obesity. Food intake regulation can be divided in two basic processes, namely satiation and satiety. Satiation is the process that determines the moment in which feeding stops and regulates the amount of ingested food during a single meal. Satiety is the interval between meals and regulates the time elapsed between two meals. The longer the interval, the lower energy intake. Each of these processes are regulated by different factors, which are here reviewed.
Topics: Appetite Regulation; Eating; Energy Intake; Humans; Satiation; Satiety Response; Sensation; Time Factors
PubMed: 29424405
DOI: 10.4067/s0034-98872017000901172 -
Nutrients Apr 2021The mouth is the first part of the gastrointestinal tract. During mastication sensory signals from the mouth, so-called oro-sensory exposure, elicit physiological... (Review)
Review
The mouth is the first part of the gastrointestinal tract. During mastication sensory signals from the mouth, so-called oro-sensory exposure, elicit physiological signals that affect satiation and food intake. It has been established that a longer duration of oro-sensory exposure leads to earlier satiation. In addition, foods with more intense sweet or salty taste induce earlier satiation compared to foods that are equally palatable, but with lower taste intensity. Oro-sensory exposure to food affects satiation by direct signaling via the brainstem to higher cortical regions involved in taste and reward, including the nucleus accumbens and the insula. There is little evidence that oro-sensory exposure affects satiation indirectly through either hormone responses or gastric signals. Critical brain areas for satiation, such as the brainstem, should be studied more intensively to better understand the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the process of satiation. Furthermore, it is essential to increase the understanding of how of highly automated eating behaviors, such as oral processing and eating rate, are formed during early childhood. A better understanding of the aforementioned mechanisms provides fundamental insight in relation to strategies to prevent overconsumption and the development of obesity in future generations.
Topics: Animals; Brain; Humans; Models, Biological; Mouth; Satiation; Sensation; Taste
PubMed: 33919044
DOI: 10.3390/nu13051391