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Journal of Infection and Public Health Oct 2013Disinfectants for foot-and-mouth disease were sprayed on livestock barns and roads from early February to May 2011. Although 90% of the disinfectant was concentrated on... (Review)
Review
Disinfectants for foot-and-mouth disease were sprayed on livestock barns and roads from early February to May 2011. Although 90% of the disinfectant was concentrated on the roads, 10% was sprayed on cattle sheds and other sites where foot-and-mouth disease occurred. Since the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in November 2010, there has been a steady increase in disinfectant use. Consequently, its adverse environmental effects have prompted government officials to take preventive measures. The major chemical components of the disinfectants are citric acid, potassium sulfate base complex, quaternary ammonium compound, malic acid, and glutaraldehyde, ranging in amounts from tons to hundreds of tons. The exact amount of each component of the disinfectants could not be identified because the types of components used in the different commercial formulations overlapped. In this review, we obtained information on disinfectants that are widely used nationwide, including the types of major chemical components and their respective toxicities (both human and ecological).
Topics: Animals; Cattle; Cattle Diseases; Disinfectants; Disinfection; Foot-and-Mouth Disease; Humans; Republic of Korea
PubMed: 23999336
DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2013.04.002 -
International Journal of Molecular... Dec 2022This review examines the role of chlorine dioxide (ClO) on inorganic compounds and cell biomolecules. As a disinfectant also present in drinking water, ClO helps to... (Review)
Review
This review examines the role of chlorine dioxide (ClO) on inorganic compounds and cell biomolecules. As a disinfectant also present in drinking water, ClO helps to destroy bacteria, viruses, and some parasites. The Environmental Protection Agency EPA regulates the maximum concentration of chlorine dioxide in drinking water to be no more than 0.8 ppm. In any case, human consumption must be strictly regulated since, given its highly reactive nature, it can react with and oxidize many of the inorganic compounds found in natural waters. Simultaneously, chlorine dioxide reacts with natural organic matter in water, including humic and fulvic acids, forming oxidized organic compounds such as aldehydes and carboxylic acids, and rapidly oxidizes phenolic compounds, amines, amino acids, peptides, and proteins, as well as the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NADH, responsible for electron and proton exchange and energy production in all cells. The influence of ClO on biomolecules is derived from its interference with redox processes, modifying the electrochemical balances in mitochondrial and cell membranes. This discourages its use on an individual basis and without specialized monitoring by health professionals.
Topics: Humans; Drinking Water; Chlorine Compounds; Oxides; Oxidation-Reduction; Disinfectants; Water Purification; Chlorine; Disinfection
PubMed: 36555303
DOI: 10.3390/ijms232415660 -
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology Jan 2021The most notable microbial survival models of disinfection kinetics are the original and modified versions of the static Chick-Watson-Hom's (CWH) initially developed for... (Review)
Review
The most notable microbial survival models of disinfection kinetics are the original and modified versions of the static Chick-Watson-Hom's (CWH) initially developed for water chlorination. They can all be viewed as special cases of the Weibull survival model, where the observed static curve is the cumulative form (CDF) of the times at which the individual targeted microbes succumb to the treatment. The CWH model time's exponent is the distribution's shape factor, and its concentration-dependent rate parameter represents the distribution's scale factor's reciprocal. Theoretically, the concentration- dependence of the Weibull model's rate parameter need not to be always in a form of a power-law relationship as the CWH model requires, and two possible alternatives are presented. Apart from being chemically reactive, most chemical disinfectants are also volatile, and their effective concentration rarely remains constant. However, the published dynamic versions of the original CWH model are mathematically incongruent with their static versions. The issue is nonexistent in the dynamic version of the Weibull or other distribution-based models, provided that the momentary inactivation rate is expressed as the static rate at the momentary concentration, at the time that corresponds to the momentary survival ratio. The resulting model is an ordinary differential equation (ODE) whose numerical solution can describe survival curves under realistic regular and irregular disinfectant dissipation patterns, as well as during the disinfectant dispersion and/or its replenishment. KEY POINTS: • The Chick-Watson-Home models are treated as special cases of the Weibull distribution. • Dynamic microbial survival curve described as ordinary differential equation solution. • Survival rate models of disinfectant dissipation and replenishment patterns presented.
Topics: Disinfectants; Disinfection; Kinetics
PubMed: 33394150
DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-11042-8 -
Viruses Oct 2023Viral disinfection is important for medical facilities, the food industry, and the veterinary field, especially in terms of controlling virus outbreaks. Therefore,... (Review)
Review
Viral disinfection is important for medical facilities, the food industry, and the veterinary field, especially in terms of controlling virus outbreaks. Therefore, standardized methods and activity levels are available for these areas. Usually, disinfectants used in these areas are characterized by their activity against test organisms (i.e., viruses, bacteria, and/or yeasts). This activity is usually determined using a suspension test in which the test organism is incubated with the respective disinfectant in solution to assess its bactericidal, yeasticidal, or virucidal activity. In addition, carrier methods that more closely reflect real-world applications have been developed, in which microorganisms are applied to the surface of a carrier (e.g., stainless steel frosted glass, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC)) and then dried. However, to date, no standardized methods have become available for addressing genetically modified vectors or disinfection-resistant oncolytic viruses such as the H1-parvovirus. Particularly, such non-enveloped viruses, which are highly resistant to disinfectants, are not taken into account in European standards. This article proposes a new activity claim known as "virucidal activity PLUS", summarizes the available methods for evaluating the virucidal activity of chemical disinfectants against genetically modified organisms (GMOs) using current European standards, including the activity against highly resistant parvoviridae such as the adeno-associated virus (AAV), and provides guidance on the selection of disinfectants for pharmaceutical manufacturers, laboratories, and clinical users.
Topics: Humans; Disinfectants; Disinfection; Viruses; Parvovirus; Parvoviridae Infections
PubMed: 38005856
DOI: 10.3390/v15112179 -
Journal of Medical Microbiology Sep 2021A review of African swine fever (ASF) was conducted, including manifestations of disease, its transmission and environmental persistence of ASF virus. Findings on... (Review)
Review
A review of African swine fever (ASF) was conducted, including manifestations of disease, its transmission and environmental persistence of ASF virus. Findings on infectious doses of contemporary highly-pathogenic strains isolated from outbreaks in Eastern Europe were included. Published data on disinfectant susceptibility of ASF virus were then compared with similar findings for selected other infectious agents, principally those used in the UK disinfectant approvals tests relating to relevant Disease Orders for the control of notifiable and zoonotic diseases of livestock. These are: swine vesicular disease virus, foot and mouth disease virus, Newcastle disease virus and serovar Enteritidis. The comparative data thus obtained, presented in a series of charts, facilitated estimates of efficacy against ASF virus for some UK approved disinfectants when applied at their respective General Orders concentrations. Substantial data gaps were encountered for several disinfectant agents or classes, including peracetic acid, quaternary ammonium compounds and products based on phenols and cresols.
Topics: African Swine Fever; African Swine Fever Virus; Animals; Disease Outbreaks; Disinfectants; Disinfection; Europe, Eastern; Swine; United Kingdom
PubMed: 34477547
DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.001410 -
Emerging Infectious Diseases 2001New disinfection methods include a persistent antimicrobial coating that can be applied to inanimate and animate objects (Surfacine), a high-level disinfectant with... (Review)
Review
New disinfection methods include a persistent antimicrobial coating that can be applied to inanimate and animate objects (Surfacine), a high-level disinfectant with reduced exposure time (ortho-phthalaldehyde), and an antimicrobial agent that can be applied to animate and inanimate objects (superoxidized water). New sterilization methods include a chemical sterilization process for endoscopes that integrates cleaning (Endoclens), a rapid (4-hour) readout biological indicator for ethylene oxide sterilization (Attest), and a hydrogen peroxide plasma sterilizer that has a shorter cycle time and improved efficacy (Sterrad 50).
Topics: Disinfectants; Disinfection; Ethylene Oxide; Humans; Hydrogen Peroxide; Sterilization; Superoxides; Temperature; Water; o-Phthalaldehyde
PubMed: 11294738
DOI: 10.3201/eid0702.010241 -
Journal of Occupational and... Aug 2022The list of EPA-approved disinfectants for coronavirus features many products for use on hard, non-porous materials. There are significantly fewer products registered...
The list of EPA-approved disinfectants for coronavirus features many products for use on hard, non-porous materials. There are significantly fewer products registered for use on porous materials. Further, many common, high-touch surfaces fall in between non-porous materials such as glass and porous materials such as soft fabrics. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of selected commercially available disinfectant products against coronaviruses on common, high-touch surfaces. Four disinfectants (Clorox Total 360, Bleach solution, Vital Oxide, and Peroxide Multi-Surface Cleaner) were evaluated against Murine Hepatitis Virus A59 (MHV) as a surrogate coronavirus for SARS-CoV-2. MHV in cell culture medium was inoculated onto four materials: stainless steel, latex-painted drywall tape, Styrene Butadiene rubber (rubber), and bus seat fabric. Immediately (T0) or 2-hr (T2) post-inoculation, disinfectants were applied by trigger-pull or electrostatic sprayer and either held for recommended contact times (Spray only) or immediately wiped (Spray and Wipe). Recovered infectious MHV was quantified by median tissue culture infectious dose assay. Bleach solution, Clorox Total 360, and Vital Oxide were all effective (>3-log reduction or complete kill of infectious virus) with both the Spray Only and Spray and Wipe methods on stainless steel, rubber, and painted drywall tape when used at recommended contact times at both T0 and T2 hr. Multi-Surface Cleaner unexpectedly showed limited efficacy against MHV on stainless steel within the recommended contact time; however, it showed increased (2.3 times greater efficacy) when used in the Spray and Wipe method compared to Spray Only. The only products to achieve a 3-log reduction on fabric were Vital Oxide and Clorox Total 360; however, the efficacy of Vital Oxide against MHV on fabric was reduced to below 3-log when applied by an electrostatic sprayer compared to a trigger-pull sprayer. This study highlights the importance of considering the material, product, and application method when developing a disinfection strategy for coronaviruses on high-touch surfaces.
Topics: Animals; COVID-19; Disinfectants; Disinfection; Mice; Murine hepatitis virus; Rubber; SARS-CoV-2; Sodium Hypochlorite; Stainless Steel
PubMed: 35687041
DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2022.2088768 -
Environmental Science & Technology Nov 2023Peroxyacids (POAs) are a promising alternative to chlorine for reducing the formation of disinfection byproducts. However, their capacity for microbial inactivation and...
Peroxyacids (POAs) are a promising alternative to chlorine for reducing the formation of disinfection byproducts. However, their capacity for microbial inactivation and mechanisms of action require further investigation. We evaluated the efficacy of three POAs (performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA), and perpropionic acid (PPA)) and chlor(am)ine for inactivation of four representative microorganisms ( (Gram-negative bacteria), (Gram-positive bacteria), MS2 bacteriophage (nonenveloped virus), and Φ6 (enveloped virus)) and for reaction rates with biomolecules (amino acids and nucleotides). Bacterial inactivation efficacy (in anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) effluent) followed the order of PFA > chlorine > PAA ≈ PPA. Fluorescence microscopic analysis indicated that free chlorine induced surface damage and cell lysis rapidly, whereas POAs led to intracellular oxidative stress through penetrating the intact cell membrane. However, POAs (50 μM) were less effective than chlorine at inactivating viruses, achieving only ∼1-log PFU removal for MS2 and Φ6 after 30 min of reaction in phosphate buffer without genome damage. Results suggest that POAs' unique interaction with bacteria and ineffective viral inactivation could be attributed to their selectivity toward cysteine and methionine through oxygen-transfer reactions and limited reactivity for other biomolecules. These mechanistic insights could inform the application of POAs in water and wastewater treatment.
Topics: Disinfectants; Virus Inactivation; Chlorine; Peracetic Acid; Disinfection; Bacteria; Water Purification
PubMed: 36995048
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c09824 -
Environmental Science and Pollution... Oct 2021This study investigated the air quality improvement in terms of bacterial and fungal contamination in an exercise room of a fitness center under normal operating...
This study investigated the air quality improvement in terms of bacterial and fungal contamination in an exercise room of a fitness center under normal operating conditions. Environmental conditions including air conditioning, ventilation, moisture, CO, particulate matters, and total number of users were also recorded. In addition, fungal and bacterial load were assessed and disinfection on sports equipment surface was also examined. Background bacteria and fungi densities in bioaerosols were in the range of 249 ± 65 to 812 ± 111 CFU/m and 226 ± 39 to 837 ± 838 CFU/m in the exercise room of the fitness center and 370 ± 86 to 953 ± 136 CFU/m and 465 ± 108 to 1734 ± 580 CFU/m in the outdoor air, respectively. Chlorine dioxide and weak acid hypochlorous water aerosols could remove both bacteria and fungi much better than water scrubbing. Contact time of 15 min was sufficient to control both bacteria and fungi to comply with the official air quality standards. User density and carbon dioxide deteriorated both bacteria and fungi disinfection performance whereas temperature was only statistically significant on fungi disinfection. Other factors including relative humidity, airflow velocity, and particulate matters did not have any statistically significant effect on microbial inactivation. Apart from bioaerosol disinfection, inactivation of microorganisms on surfaces of sports equipment was also conducted using chlorine dioxide, zinc oxide, weak acid hypochlorous water, and commercial disinfectant. The surfaces of bicycle handle, dumbbell, and sit-up bench were found to be contaminated with bacteria. Overall bacterial load was 390 to 3720 CFU/cm with Escherichia coli specifically 550 to 1080 CFU/cm. Chlorine dioxide and zinc oxide were noticeably better than weak acid hypochlorous water and commercial disinfectant in terms of bacteria inactivation whereas all tested disinfectants had comparable effectiveness on E. coli disinfection. Targeted microorganisms on the sports equipment surface were sufficiently inactivated within 2 min after the application of disinfectant.
Topics: Air Microbiology; Air Pollution, Indoor; Bacteria; Disinfectants; Disinfection; Escherichia coli; Fitness Centers; Fungi
PubMed: 34018112
DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14323-5 -
International Journal of Environmental... Mar 2022Nitrification is a major challenge in chloraminated drinking water systems, resulting in undesirable loss of disinfectant residual. Consequently, heterotrophic bacteria... (Review)
Review
Nitrification is a major challenge in chloraminated drinking water systems, resulting in undesirable loss of disinfectant residual. Consequently, heterotrophic bacteria growth is increased, which adversely affects the water quality, causing taste, odour, and health issues. Regular monitoring of various water quality parameters at susceptible areas of the water distribution system (WDS) helps to detect nitrification at an earlier stage and allows sufficient time to take corrective actions to control it. Strategies to monitor nitrification in a WDS require conducting various microbiological tests or assessing surrogate parameters that are affected by microbiological activities. Additionally, microbial decay factor (Fm) is used by water utilities to monitor the status of nitrification. In contrast, approaches to manage nitrification in a WDS include controlling various factors that affect monochloramine decay rate and ammonium substrate availability, and that can inhibit nitrification. However, some of these control strategies may increase the regulated disinfection-by-products level, which may be a potential health concern. In this paper, various strategies to monitor and control nitrification in a WDS are critically examined. The key findings are: (i) the applicability of some methods require further validation using real WDS, as the original studies were conducted on laboratory or pilot systems; (ii) there is no linkage/formula found to relate the surrogate parameters to the concentration of nitrifying bacteria, which possibly improve nitrification monitoring performance; (iii) improved methods/monitoring tools are required to detect nitrification at an earlier stage; (iv) further studies are required to understand the effect of soluble microbial products on the change of surrogate parameters. Based on the current review, we recommend that the successful outcome using many of these methods is often site-specific, hence, water utilities should decide based on their regular experiences when considering economic and sustainability aspects.
Topics: Ammonia; Bacteria; Chloramines; Disinfectants; Disinfection; Drinking Water; Nitrification; Water Supply
PubMed: 35409686
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19074003