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Microbiology (Reading, England) Jan 2012Trichoderma (teleomorph Hypocrea) is a fungal genus found in many ecosystems. Trichoderma spp. can reduce the severity of plant diseases by inhibiting plant pathogens in... (Review)
Review
Trichoderma (teleomorph Hypocrea) is a fungal genus found in many ecosystems. Trichoderma spp. can reduce the severity of plant diseases by inhibiting plant pathogens in the soil through their highly potent antagonistic and mycoparasitic activity. Moreover, as revealed by research in recent decades, some Trichoderma strains can interact directly with roots, increasing plant growth potential, resistance to disease and tolerance to abiotic stresses. This mini-review summarizes the main findings concerning the Trichoderma-plant interaction, the molecular dialogue between the two organisms, and the dramatic changes induced by the beneficial fungus in the plant. Efforts to enhance plant resistance and tolerance to a broad range of stresses by expressing Trichoderma genes in the plant genome are also addressed.
Topics: Antibiosis; Fungal Proteins; Plant Development; Plant Diseases; Plants; Soil Microbiology; Trichoderma
PubMed: 21998166
DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.052274-0 -
Journal of Advanced Research Jul 2023Trichoderma species are rich source of bioactive secondary metabolites. In the past decades, a series of secondary metabolites were reported from different Trichoderma... (Review)
Review
BACKGROUND
Trichoderma species are rich source of bioactive secondary metabolites. In the past decades, a series of secondary metabolites were reported from different Trichoderma fungi, among which terpenoids possessing versatile structural diversities and extensive pharmacological activities are one of the particularly important categories.
AIM OF REVIEW
The review aims to summarize the terpenoids isolated from Trichoderma species regarding their structural diversities, biological activities, and promising biosynthetic potentials.
KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW
So far, a total of 253 terpenoids, including 202 sesquiterpenes, 48 diterpenes, 2 monoterpenes and 1 meroterpenoid, were isolated and identified from Trichoderma species between 1948 and 2022. Pharmacological investigations of Trichoderma terpenoids mainly focused on their antibacterial activities, antifungal activities, inhibitory activities on marine plankton species and cytotoxic activities, indicating that Trichoderma species are important microbial agents for drug discovery and environmentally friendly agrochemicals development. Intriguing chemistry and enzymology involved in the biosynthesis of Trichoderma terpenoids were also presented to facilitate further precise genome mining-guided novel structure discovery. Taken together, the abundance of novel skeletons, bioactivities and biosynthetic potentials presents new opportunities for drug and agrochemicals discovery, genome mining and enzymology exploration from Trichoderma species. The work will provide references for the profound study of terpenoids derived from Trichoderma, and facilitate further studies on Trichoderma species in the areas of chemistry, medicine, agriculture and microbiology.
Topics: Terpenes; Trichoderma; Soil; Sesquiterpenes; Antifungal Agents
PubMed: 36195283
DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2022.09.010 -
Microbiology (Reading, England) Jan 2012Species belonging to the genus Trichoderma are free-living fungi common in soil and root ecosystems, and have a broad range of uses in industry and agricultural... (Review)
Review
Species belonging to the genus Trichoderma are free-living fungi common in soil and root ecosystems, and have a broad range of uses in industry and agricultural biotechnology. Some species of the genus are widely used biocontrol agents, and their success is in part due to mycoparasitism, a lifestyle in which one fungus is parasitic on another. In addition Trichoderma species have been found to elicit plant defence responses and to stimulate plant growth. In order to survive and spread, Trichoderma switches from vegetative to reproductive development, and has evolved with several sophisticated molecular mechanisms to this end. Asexual development (conidiation) is induced by light and mechanical injury, although the effects of these inducers are influenced by environmental conditions, such as nutrient status and pH. A current appreciation of the links between the molecular participants is presented in this review. The photoreceptor complex BLR-1/BLR-2, ENVOY, VELVET, and NADPH oxidases have been suggested as key participants in this process. In concert with these elements, conserved signalling pathways, such as those involving heterotrimeric G proteins, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA) are involved in this molecular orchestration. Finally, recent comparative and functional genomics analyses allow a comparison of the machinery involved in conidiophore development in model systems with that present in Trichoderma and a model to be proposed for the key factors involved in the development of these structures.
Topics: Ecosystem; Fungal Proteins; Gene Expression Regulation, Fungal; Microbial Viability; Spores, Fungal; Trichoderma
PubMed: 21964734
DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.052688-0 -
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology Jul 2010Fungi of the genus Trichoderma are soilborne, green-spored ascomycetes that can be found all over the world. They have been studied with respect to various... (Review)
Review
Fungi of the genus Trichoderma are soilborne, green-spored ascomycetes that can be found all over the world. They have been studied with respect to various characteristics and applications and are known as successful colonizers of their habitats, efficiently fighting their competitors. Once established, they launch their potent degradative machinery for decomposition of the often heterogeneous substrate at hand. Therefore, distribution and phylogeny, defense mechanisms, beneficial as well as deleterious interaction with hosts, enzyme production and secretion, sexual development, and response to environmental conditions such as nutrients and light have been studied in great detail with many species of this genus, thus rendering Trichoderma one of the best studied fungi with the genome of three species currently available. Efficient biocontrol strains of the genus are being developed as promising biological fungicides, and their weaponry for this function also includes secondary metabolites with potential applications as novel antibiotics. The cellulases produced by Trichoderma reesei, the biotechnological workhorse of the genus, are important industrial products, especially with respect to production of second generation biofuels from cellulosic waste. Genetic engineering not only led to significant improvements in industrial processes but also to intriguing insights into the biology of these fungi and is now complemented by the availability of a sexual cycle in T. reesei/Hypocrea jecorina, which significantly facilitates both industrial and basic research. This review aims to give a broad overview on the qualities and versatility of the best studied Trichoderma species and to highlight intriguing findings as well as promising applications.
Topics: Fungal Proteins; Gene Expression Regulation, Fungal; Industrial Microbiology; Trichoderma
PubMed: 20461510
DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2632-1 -
Microbial Biotechnology Nov 2017Lignocellulosic biomass, which mainly consists of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, is the most abundant renewable source for production of biofuel and biorefinery... (Review)
Review
Lignocellulosic biomass, which mainly consists of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, is the most abundant renewable source for production of biofuel and biorefinery products. The industrial use of plant biomass involves mechanical milling or chipping, followed by chemical or physicochemical pretreatment steps to make the material more susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis. Thereby the cost of enzyme production still presents the major bottleneck, mostly because some of the produced enzymes have low catalytic activity under industrial conditions and/or because the rate of hydrolysis of some enzymes in the secreted enzyme mixture is limiting. Almost all of the lignocellulolytic enzyme cocktails needed for the hydrolysis step are produced by fermentation of the ascomycete Trichoderma reesei (Hypocreales). For this reason, the structure and mechanism of the enzymes involved, the regulation of their expression and the pathways of their formation and secretion have been investigated in T. reesei in considerable details. Several of the findings thereby obtained have been used to improve the formation of the T. reesei cellulases and their properties. In this article, we will review the achievements that have already been made and also show promising fields for further progress.
Topics: Cellulases; Cellulose; Fungal Proteins; Genetic Engineering; Trichoderma
PubMed: 28557371
DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.12726 -
PLoS Pathogens Feb 2020Fungal parasitism depends on the ability to invade host organisms and mandates adaptive cell wall remodeling to avoid detection and defense reactions by the host. All...
Fungal parasitism depends on the ability to invade host organisms and mandates adaptive cell wall remodeling to avoid detection and defense reactions by the host. All plant and human pathogens share invasive strategies, which aid to escape the chitin-triggered and chitin-targeted host immune system. Here we describe the full spectrum of the chitin/chitosan-modifying enzymes in the mycoparasite Trichoderma atroviride with a central role in cell wall remodeling. Rapid adaption to a variety of growth conditions, environmental stresses and host defense mechanisms such as oxidative stress depend on the concerted interplay of these enzymes and, ultimately, are necessary for the success of the mycoparasitic attack. To our knowledge, we provide the first in class description of chitin and associated glycopolymer synthesis in a mycoparasite and demonstrate that they are essential for biocontrol. Eight chitin synthases, six chitin deacetylases, additional chitinolytic enzymes, including six chitosanases, transglycosylases as well as accessory proteins are involved in this intricately regulated process. Systematic and biochemical classification, phenotypic characterization and mycoparasitic confrontation assays emphasize the importance of chitin and chitosan assembly in vegetative development and biocontrol in T. atroviride. Our findings critically contribute to understanding the molecular mechanism of chitin synthesis in filamentous fungi and mycoparasites with the overarching goal to selectively exploit the discovered biocontrol strategies.
Topics: Cell Wall; Chitin; Chitin Synthase; Chitosan; Gene Expression Regulation, Fungal; Glycoside Hydrolases; Phylogeny; Plants; Trichoderma
PubMed: 32078661
DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008320 -
Brazilian Journal of Biology = Revista... 2022Brazil is one of the world leaders in the agribusiness sector tending to directly influence a growing dependence on imported inputs, specifically synthetic... (Review)
Review
Brazil is one of the world leaders in the agribusiness sector tending to directly influence a growing dependence on imported inputs, specifically synthetic agrochemicals. At the state level, in 2013, Tocantins stood out in first place in the ranking of agrochemical consumers, however, these products can cause several problems, such as poisoning to humans, environmental contamination, and increased resistance to phytopathogens. Biological control is an alternative to the use of agrochemicals towards eliminating pests naturally by using living organisms called Biological Control Agents (BCA). Currently, fungi of the Trichoderma genus are some of the most used organisms in biological pest control for their relevant characteristics that favor them in terms of survival in the environment, such as high capacity to adapt to ecological conditions, potential to colonize the rhizosphere of plants, mycoparasitism, production of volatile and non-volatile metabolites. In addition, it works on plant growth and productivity. In general, the use of Trichoderma favors the control of soil pathogens, such as Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Sclerotinia, and nematodes. Thus, this review aims to demonstrate the importance of using Trichoderma in biological control, as well as to present an overview and perspectives of research developed by respondents in the Brazilian Midwest region and Tocantins state.
Topics: Agrochemicals; Biological Control Agents; Brazil; Humans; Pest Control, Biological; Plant Diseases; Trichoderma
PubMed: 35946640
DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.260161 -
FEMS Microbiology Letters Dec 2012Mycotrophic species of Trichoderma are among the most common fungi isolated from free soil, dead wood and as parasites on sporocarps of other fungi (mycoparasites). In... (Review)
Review
Mycotrophic species of Trichoderma are among the most common fungi isolated from free soil, dead wood and as parasites on sporocarps of other fungi (mycoparasites). In addition, they undergo various other biotrophic associations ranging from rhizosphere colonization and endophytism up to facultative pathogenesis on such animals as roundworms and humans. Together with occurrence on a variety of less common substrata (marine invertebrates, artificial materials, indoor habitats), these lifestyles illustrate a wealthy opportunistic potential of the fungus. One tropical species, Trichoderma reesei, has become a prominent producer of cellulases and hemicellulases, whereas several other species are applied in agriculture for the biological control of phytopathogenic fungi. The sequencing of the complete genomes of the three species (T. reesei, T. virens, and T. atroviride) has led to a deepened understanding of Trichoderma lifestyle and its molecular physiology. In this review, we present the in silico predicted secretome of Trichoderma, and - in addition to the unique features of carbohydrate active enzymes - demonstrate the importance of such protein families as proteases, oxidative enzymes, and small cysteine-rich proteins, all of that received little attention in Trichoderma genetics so far. We also discuss the link between Trichoderma secretome and biology of the fungus.
Topics: Carbohydrate Metabolism; Computational Biology; Fungal Proteins; Genome, Fungal; Proteome; Trichoderma
PubMed: 22924408
DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2012.02665.x -
Microbial Biotechnology Oct 2022Given their lignocellulose degradability and biocontrol activities, fungi of the ubiquitously distributed genus Trichoderma have multiple industrial and agricultural... (Review)
Review
Given their lignocellulose degradability and biocontrol activities, fungi of the ubiquitously distributed genus Trichoderma have multiple industrial and agricultural applications. Genetic manipulation plays a valuable role in tailoring novel engineered strains with enhanced target traits. Nevertheless, as applied to fungi, the classic tools of genetic manipulation tend to be time-consuming and tedious. However, the recent development of the CRISPR-Cas system for gene editing has enabled researchers to achieve genome-wide gene disruptions, gene replacements, and precise editing, and this technology has emerged as a primary focus for novel developments in engineered strains of Trichoderma. Here, we provide a brief overview of the traditional approaches to genetic manipulation, the different strategies employed in establishing CRSIPR-Cas systems, the utilization of these systems to develop engineered strains of Trichoderma for desired applications, and the future trends in biotechnology.
Topics: Biotechnology; CRISPR-Cas Systems; Gene Editing; Trichoderma
PubMed: 35908288
DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.14126 -
Fungal Genetics and Biology : FG & B Nov 2010In recent years, considerable progress has been made in the elucidation of photoresponses and the mechanisms responsible for their induction in species of the genus... (Review)
Review
In recent years, considerable progress has been made in the elucidation of photoresponses and the mechanisms responsible for their induction in species of the genus Trichoderma. Although an influence of light on these fungi had already been reported five decades ago, their response is not limited to photoconidiation. While early studies on the molecular level concentrated on signaling via the secondary messenger cAMP, a more comprehensive scheme is available today. The photoreceptor-orthologs BLR1 and BLR2 are known to mediate almost all known light responses in these fungi and another light-regulatory protein, ENVOY, is suggested to establish the connection between light response and nutrient signaling. As a central regulatory mechanism, this light signaling machinery impacts diverse downstream pathways including vegetative growth, reproduction, carbon and sulfur metabolism, response to oxidative stress and biosynthesis of peptaibols. These responses involve several signaling cascades, for example the heterotrimeric G-protein and MAP-kinase cascades, resulting in an integrated response to environmental conditions.
Topics: Carbon; Fungal Proteins; Gene Expression Regulation, Fungal; Light; Mycelium; Oxidative Stress; Peptaibols; Receptors, Cell Surface; Signal Transduction; Sulfur; Transcription Factors; Trichoderma
PubMed: 20466064
DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2010.04.010